Every 50 years from 1000 BC to 2020: the estimated world Jewish population (thousands) and the share of it living in each region. Regions are modern borders. Download as CSV.
| Year | World total (thousands) | Land of Israel / Palestine | Egypt | Iraq (Babylonia) | Iran (Persia) | Syria & Lebanon | Turkey (Anatolia) | Greece & Cyprus | Italy | Spain | Portugal | France | Germany | Austria | Czechia & Slovakia | Hungary | Poland | Lithuania | Latvia & Estonia | Belarus | Ukraine | Moldova | Romania | Bulgaria | Western Balkans | Russia | Netherlands & Belgium | Britain & Ireland | Switzerland | Scandinavia | Morocco | Algeria | Tunisia | Libya | Arabia & Yemen | Caucasus & Central Asia | Americas (off map) | Rest of world (off map) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1000 BC | 150 | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 950 BC | 180 | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 900 BC | 220 | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 850 BC | 270 | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 800 BC | 330 | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 750 BC | 400 | 100.0 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 700 BC | 350 | 85.7 | – | 10.0 | 1.4 | 2.9 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 650 BC | 335 | 83.6 | – | 10.4 | 3.0 | 3.0 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 600 BC | 325 | 80.0 | 1.5 | 12.3 | 3.1 | 3.1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 550 BC | 173 | 34.7 | 8.7 | 43.4 | 8.7 | 4.6 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 500 BC | 176 | 28.4 | 11.4 | 45.5 | 11.4 | 3.4 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 450 BC | 196 | 28.1 | 10.2 | 45.9 | 12.8 | 3.1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 400 BC | 228 | 28.5 | 11.0 | 43.9 | 13.2 | 3.5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 350 BC | 265 | 30.2 | 11.3 | 41.5 | 13.2 | 3.8 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 300 BC | 358 | 27.9 | 16.8 | 33.5 | 11.2 | 5.6 | 2.8 | 0.8 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1.4 | – | – | – | – |
| 250 BC | 505 | 25.7 | 19.8 | 27.7 | 8.9 | 7.9 | 5.9 | 1.6 | 0.4 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 2.0 | – | – | – | – |
| 200 BC | 710 | 25.4 | 21.1 | 22.5 | 7.0 | 9.9 | 8.5 | 2.1 | 0.7 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 2.8 | – | – | – | – |
| 150 BC | 1,060 | 28.3 | 23.6 | 17.0 | 5.2 | 10.4 | 9.4 | 2.4 | 0.9 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 2.8 | – | – | – | – |
| 100 BC | 1,640 | 30.5 | 24.4 | 13.4 | 3.7 | 11.0 | 9.8 | 2.4 | 1.2 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 3.0 | – | 0.6 | – | – |
| 50 BC | 2,555 | 31.3 | 23.5 | 11.7 | 2.7 | 11.7 | 9.8 | 2.3 | 1.6 | 0.2 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 2.7 | 0.6 | 0.8 | – | 0.2 |
| 0 BC | 4,256 | 32.6 | 21.0 | 11.7 | 2.3 | 14.0 | 9.3 | 2.3 | 1.4 | 0.2 | – | 0.1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 2.3 | 0.7 | 0.7 | – | 0.3 |
| 50 AD | 4,559 | 32.9 | 19.7 | 12.1 | 2.4 | 13.6 | 9.2 | 2.4 | 1.5 | 0.3 | – | 0.1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 2.4 | 0.9 | 0.9 | – | 0.4 |
| 100 AD | 3,988 | 25.1 | 21.3 | 15.0 | 3.0 | 13.8 | 10.0 | 2.5 | 1.8 | 0.5 | – | 0.2 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 2.5 | 1.3 | 1.0 | – | 0.5 |
| 150 AD | 2,700 | 22.2 | 5.6 | 24.1 | 4.8 | 16.7 | 13.0 | 3.0 | 2.6 | 0.9 | – | 0.4 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.1 | 0.6 | 1.9 | 1.5 | – | 0.7 |
| 200 AD | 2,570 | 21.4 | 3.9 | 27.2 | 5.4 | 15.6 | 12.5 | 2.7 | 2.7 | 1.2 | – | 0.4 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 0.4 | 1.9 | 1.6 | – | 0.8 |
| 250 AD | 2,485 | 20.1 | 3.2 | 30.2 | 6.0 | 14.1 | 12.1 | 2.4 | 2.4 | 1.2 | – | 0.4 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 0.4 | 2.4 | 1.6 | – | 1.0 |
| 300 AD | 2,418 | 18.6 | 2.9 | 33.1 | 6.6 | 12.4 | 11.6 | 2.1 | 2.3 | 1.4 | – | 0.4 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 0.3 | 2.9 | 1.7 | – | 1.2 |
| 350 AD | 2,275 | 17.6 | 2.6 | 35.2 | 7.0 | 11.0 | 11.0 | 2.0 | 2.2 | 1.5 | – | 0.5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 0.4 | 3.5 | 1.8 | – | 1.3 |
| 400 AD | 2,128 | 16.4 | 2.3 | 37.6 | 7.5 | 9.4 | 10.3 | 1.9 | 2.1 | 1.6 | – | 0.6 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 0.3 | 4.2 | 1.9 | – | 1.4 |
| 450 AD | 1,982 | 15.1 | 2.3 | 39.4 | 7.6 | 8.6 | 9.6 | 1.8 | 2.0 | 1.8 | – | 0.6 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.7 | 0.6 | 1.3 | 0.3 | 5.0 | 2.0 | – | 1.5 |
| 500 AD | 1,842 | 13.6 | 2.2 | 40.7 | 8.1 | 8.1 | 8.7 | 1.6 | 2.2 | 1.9 | – | 0.7 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.7 | 0.7 | 1.4 | 0.3 | 5.4 | 2.2 | – | 1.6 |
| 550 AD | 1,647 | 12.1 | 2.1 | 42.5 | 8.5 | 7.9 | 7.9 | 1.5 | 2.1 | 2.1 | – | 0.7 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.7 | 0.7 | 1.3 | 0.3 | 5.5 | 2.1 | – | 1.8 |
| 600 AD | 1,462 | 10.3 | 2.1 | 44.5 | 8.9 | 7.5 | 6.8 | 1.4 | 2.1 | 2.4 | – | 0.8 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.8 | 0.8 | 1.5 | 0.3 | 5.5 | 2.4 | – | 2.1 |
| 650 AD | 1,276 | 9.4 | 2.4 | 47.0 | 9.4 | 7.1 | 6.3 | 1.4 | 2.0 | 2.4 | – | 0.9 | 0.08 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.9 | 0.9 | 1.7 | 0.4 | 3.1 | 2.4 | – | 2.4 |
| 700 AD | 1,156 | 8.7 | 2.6 | 47.6 | 9.5 | 6.9 | 5.2 | 1.3 | 1.9 | 2.2 | – | 1.0 | 0.2 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.9 | 0.4 | 3.5 | 2.6 | – | 2.6 |
| 750 AD | 1,085 | 8.3 | 3.2 | 46.1 | 9.2 | 6.9 | 4.6 | 1.4 | 1.8 | 2.8 | – | 1.1 | 0.3 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1.1 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 0.5 | 4.1 | 2.8 | – | 2.8 |
| 800 AD | 1,032 | 7.8 | 3.9 | 43.6 | 9.7 | 6.8 | 4.4 | 1.5 | 1.9 | 3.4 | – | 1.2 | 0.5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1.2 | 1.1 | 2.1 | 0.5 | 4.8 | 2.9 | – | 2.9 |
| 850 AD | 988 | 7.6 | 4.6 | 40.5 | 10.6 | 6.6 | 4.0 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 4.0 | – | 1.2 | 0.6 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1.2 | 1.1 | 2.2 | 0.5 | 5.6 | 3.0 | – | 3.0 |
| 900 AD | 949 | 7.4 | 5.3 | 36.9 | 11.6 | 6.3 | 4.2 | 1.6 | 2.1 | 4.7 | – | 1.3 | 0.7 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1.3 | 1.2 | 2.3 | 0.5 | 6.3 | 3.2 | – | 3.2 |
| 950 AD | 927 | 7.0 | 5.9 | 32.4 | 12.9 | 6.5 | 4.3 | 1.6 | 2.2 | 5.4 | – | 1.5 | 0.9 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1.3 | 1.2 | 2.4 | 0.5 | 7.6 | 3.2 | – | 3.2 |
| 1000 AD | 901 | 6.7 | 6.7 | 28.9 | 13.3 | 6.1 | 4.4 | 1.7 | 2.2 | 6.1 | – | 1.8 | 1.1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1.3 | 1.2 | 2.4 | 0.6 | 8.9 | 3.3 | – | 3.3 |
| 1050 AD | 898 | 6.1 | 7.2 | 24.5 | 14.5 | 6.1 | 4.5 | 1.7 | 2.4 | 6.7 | – | 2.2 | 1.7 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.1 | – | – | 1.3 | 1.2 | 2.4 | 0.6 | 10.0 | 3.3 | – | 3.3 |
| 1100 AD | 890 | 4.5 | 7.9 | 20.2 | 15.7 | 5.6 | 4.5 | 1.7 | 2.8 | 7.3 | – | 2.8 | 2.0 | – | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.3 | – | – | 1.3 | 1.2 | 2.5 | 0.6 | 11.2 | 3.4 | – | 3.9 |
| 1150 AD | 945 | 3.2 | 5.3 | 14.8 | 16.9 | 4.2 | 3.2 | 2.6 | 3.2 | 9.5 | 0.5 | 4.2 | 2.6 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.2 | 0.5 | – | – | 1.3 | 1.2 | 1.8 | 0.5 | 10.6 | 6.3 | – | 6.3 |
| 1200 AD | 970 | 2.6 | 4.6 | 13.4 | 15.5 | 4.1 | 3.1 | 2.6 | 3.6 | 10.3 | 0.8 | 6.2 | 4.1 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.6 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.1 | – | 1.2 | 1.1 | 1.8 | 0.5 | 10.3 | 5.7 | – | 5.7 |
| 1250 AD | 1,044 | 1.9 | 4.3 | 11.5 | 13.4 | 3.4 | 2.9 | 2.4 | 3.8 | 12.5 | 1.1 | 7.7 | 5.7 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 1.0 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.2 | – | 1.4 | 1.1 | 1.7 | 0.4 | 10.5 | 4.8 | – | 5.7 |
| 1300 AD | 1,122 | 1.3 | 4.5 | 8.9 | 11.6 | 3.1 | 2.7 | 2.2 | 3.6 | 13.4 | 1.8 | 8.9 | 6.2 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 1.3 | 0.09 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.4 | – | 0.2 | – | 1.8 | 1.3 | 1.8 | 0.4 | 11.6 | 4.5 | – | 7.1 |
| 1350 AD | 1,016 | 1.5 | 4.4 | 8.9 | 12.8 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 2.5 | 3.9 | 14.8 | 2.5 | 3.0 | 4.4 | 0.5 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 2.0 | 0.2 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.3 | – | 0.2 | – | 2.0 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 0.5 | 12.8 | 4.4 | – | 7.9 |
| 1400 AD | 946 | 1.6 | 4.2 | 8.5 | 12.7 | 2.6 | 3.2 | 2.6 | 4.8 | 10.6 | 3.2 | 0.5 | 5.3 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 0.8 | 3.2 | 0.3 | – | 0.2 | 0.5 | – | – | – | – | – | 0.3 | – | 0.2 | – | 2.6 | 1.9 | 2.3 | 0.5 | 12.7 | 4.2 | – | 8.5 |
| 1450 AD | 1,034 | 1.2 | 3.9 | 6.8 | 11.6 | 2.4 | 2.4 | 1.9 | 5.3 | 12.6 | 3.9 | 1.5 | 7.3 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 3.4 | 0.4 | – | 0.4 | 0.8 | – | – | – | – | – | 0.5 | – | 0.2 | – | 2.9 | 1.9 | 2.4 | 0.5 | 11.6 | 3.9 | – | 7.7 |
| 1500 AD | 1,115 | 1.3 | 4.5 | 5.4 | 11.7 | 3.1 | 6.3 | 3.6 | 8.1 | – | – | 1.3 | 8.1 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 1.3 | 4.0 | 0.5 | – | 0.5 | 1.1 | – | – | 0.7 | 0.7 | – | 0.7 | – | 0.3 | – | 5.4 | 3.1 | 2.7 | 0.4 | 11.7 | 3.6 | – | 8.5 |
| 1550 AD | 1,113 | 1.8 | 4.5 | 4.9 | 10.8 | 3.1 | 7.2 | 4.5 | 7.2 | – | – | 0.9 | 5.4 | 0.3 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 5.8 | 0.9 | – | 0.9 | 2.2 | – | – | 1.1 | 1.1 | – | 0.7 | – | 0.2 | – | 5.4 | 3.1 | 2.2 | 0.5 | 10.8 | 3.6 | 0.09 | 8.5 |
| 1600 AD | 1,139 | 1.8 | 4.0 | 4.4 | 8.8 | 2.6 | 7.9 | 4.8 | 5.3 | – | – | 0.7 | 4.4 | 0.3 | 1.3 | 0.9 | 9.7 | 1.3 | – | 1.6 | 4.4 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 1.1 | 1.3 | – | 0.9 | – | 0.2 | – | 5.3 | 3.1 | 2.2 | 0.5 | 9.7 | 3.1 | 0.2 | 7.9 |
| 1650 AD | 1,167 | 1.5 | 3.6 | 4.3 | 7.7 | 2.6 | 7.7 | 4.7 | 3.9 | – | – | 0.7 | 3.9 | 0.3 | 1.7 | 0.9 | 12.9 | 2.1 | – | 2.6 | 5.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 1.3 | – | 1.3 | 0.09 | 0.2 | – | 5.1 | 2.7 | 1.9 | 0.5 | 8.6 | 2.7 | 0.3 | 7.3 |
| 1700 AD | 1,114 | 1.1 | 2.7 | 3.6 | 4.5 | 2.2 | 5.4 | 2.7 | 2.7 | – | – | 0.9 | 6.3 | 0.3 | 2.7 | 1.3 | 21.5 | 3.6 | 0.3 | 5.4 | 9.0 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.9 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 1.8 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.09 | 4.5 | 2.2 | 1.3 | 0.4 | 4.0 | 2.2 | 0.4 | 2.7 |
| 1750 AD | 1,477 | 0.7 | 1.7 | 2.7 | 3.0 | 1.7 | 4.1 | 2.0 | 2.0 | – | – | 2.7 | 5.4 | 0.3 | 3.0 | 2.7 | 23.7 | 4.1 | 0.3 | 6.1 | 12.2 | 0.7 | 1.4 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 2.0 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 4.1 | 1.7 | 1.4 | 0.4 | 3.0 | 1.7 | 0.3 | 2.0 |
| 1800 AD | 2,410 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 1.0 | 3.3 | 1.2 | 1.5 | – | – | 2.5 | 8.3 | 0.3 | 2.9 | 4.1 | 20.7 | 4.1 | 0.4 | 8.3 | 16.6 | 0.8 | 2.1 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.7 | 2.1 | 0.8 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 2.9 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 0.3 | 2.1 | 1.2 | 0.4 | 1.7 |
| 1850 AD | 4,661 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 2.1 | 0.6 | 0.9 | – | – | 1.9 | 8.6 | 0.4 | 2.4 | 6.4 | 20.4 | 3.9 | 0.6 | 9.7 | 21.5 | 1.3 | 2.6 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 2.1 | 1.3 | 0.8 | 0.09 | 0.1 | 1.9 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 1.5 | 1.1 |
| 1900 AD | 10,679 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 1.4 | 0.7 | 0.3 | 0.06 | – | 0.8 | 5.2 | 1.4 | 2.6 | 4.7 | 15.1 | 2.8 | 1.4 | 8.4 | 24.9 | 2.2 | 4.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 3.3 | 1.0 | 2.3 | 0.1 | 0.09 | 1.0 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 9.8 | 1.3 |
| 1950 AD | 11,434 | 10.5 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 0.09 | 0.5 | 0.05 | 0.3 | 0.04 | – | 2.1 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 1.3 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 1.3 | 7.0 | 0.8 | 2.4 | 0.09 | 0.06 | 7.0 | 0.6 | 3.9 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 2.1 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.09 | 1.5 | 49.9 | 2.0 |
| 2000 AD | 13,288 | 37.3 | – | – | 0.09 | – | 0.2 | 0.03 | 0.2 | 0.09 | – | 3.9 | 0.8 | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.4 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 2.2 | 0.5 | 2.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.05 | – | 0.01 | – | – | 0.4 | 48.8 | 1.5 |
| 2020 AD | 15,191 | 45.4 | – | – | 0.05 | – | 0.09 | 0.03 | 0.2 | 0.09 | – | 3.0 | 0.8 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.3 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.3 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 1.0 | 0.4 | 1.9 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.01 | – | 0.01 | – | – | 0.1 | 44.6 | 1.2 |
Anchor estimates come from the sources listed on the map page; values between anchors are linear interpolations. Before about 1800 every figure is a scholarly reconstruction with wide error bars, and before 500 BC the numbers rest on archaeological survey estimates rather than any record.